I. Components of skilled motor behavior (Magill, 1993)

A. Motor skill

1. Voluntary body movement

2. Achievable goal

3. Movement required to achieve goal

B. Coordination

1. Effectively and efficiently patterning body movements by constraining the available degrees of freedom to achieve the goal of the skill

2. Interacts with the patterning of environment objects and events

C. Control

1. Arriving at total body movement based upon degrees of freedom for each segment

2. Based on movement parameters describing body's total action

(force generated, linear displacement, angular displacement, systems traveled)

D. Sensory mechanisms

Key point: skilled motor behavior is a performance in which environmental parameters have been selected and degrees of freedom have been condensed to produce an appropriate performance. Degrees of freedom of movement are the options or possibilities available within the human body to perform a movement.

II. Theories of motor learning

A. Characteristics of motor learning theories

1. A process within the individual resulting in a relatively permanent change to enhance a motor performance

2. Not directly observable

3. Enhanced motor performance a result of practice and experience (not maturation, temporary states, or instincts)

a) Early neural development critical

b) Observable only through repeated performances

Key point: theories of motor learning state that an internal process occurs within the individual that results in enhanced motor performance following practice and experience.

B. Observational learning (Sheffield, contiguity-mediational theory, 1961)

1. Filmed demonstrations

2. Observers formed blueprint

Key point: early motor theories stated that individuals could learn motor skills by observing someone else perform a skill, forming a blueprint for themselves that guided them in reproducing the skill.

C. Closed loop theory (Adams, 1971)

1. Adams wondered about detection and correction of performance errors

2. Paradigm compares a feedback against a reference to explain human movement

3. Two memory mechanisms

a) Memory trace: mechanism used to select & initiate movement

b) Perceptual trace: mechanism that compared movement performed with its internal memory reference

4. Learning is diminished if either the memory trace or perceptual trace is diminished

Key point: closed loop theory is a paradigm that compares feedback against a reference to explain human movement.

D. Schema theory (Schmidt, 1975)

1. Believed symbolic representation of every movement unwieldy

2. Created paradigm that explains the rules governing movement (schema theory)

3. Once performance made, information grouped and stored in 4 general areas

a) Environmental conditions as movement begins

b) Specific requirements of the movement (e.g. speed, time, space, force)

c) Outcome of the movement compared to intended outcome (results)

d) Sensory information (how movement felt, appeared, sounded)

4. Learning optimized if grouped information is stored

5. Specific schemas facilitate information storage

a) Recall schema: rules that select parameter values for specific movement and initiate goal directed performance

b) Response recognition schema: rules used to assess and compare outcome with parameters selected, using sensory information to store future corrections

6. Generalized motor program stored in memory & controls groups of movements

Key point: schema theory states that generalized motor programs are stored in memory and control groups of movements. Motor learning skills are learned by comparing movements intended and initiated (recall schema) with outcome (response recognition schema).

E. Ecological theory: perception and movement (Turvey, 1974; Turvey & Carello, 1988)

1. Movement paradigm in which the individual interacts with the environment

2. The interaction is based on the individual's perception

3. Person searches the environment proactively

a) Establishing concepts that enhance learning of motor skills

b) Identifying information that inhibits the learning of motor skills

 Key point: ecological theory is a paradigm explaining human movement in which the individual interacts with the environment and that interaction is based on the individual's perception.

III. Evaluation of theories (Newell, 1991; Schmidt 1991)

A. Traditional theories do not account for

1 Acquisition of new coordinated behaviors

2. How individuals make small adjustments in a dynamic environment

B. Ecological theory

1. Provides more possible explanation of why movements can be changed once begun

2. Diminishes the role of memory and memory traces

3. Questions flexibility of generalized motor program (jai alai versus Nintendo)

Key point: no one theory accounts for all aspects of motor learning. Questions and research about how motor skills are learned continue.

Study questions:

1. Define degrees of freedom.
2. List the three characteristics of motor skills.
3. Define skilled motor behavior
4. Describe the observational learning theory, closed-loop theory, schema theory, and ecological theory.
5. Give an example of recall schema and of response recognition schema.