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SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH METHODS: Psychological Research on the Human Spirit
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Department of Psychology |
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Three Examples
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Three brief examples can demonstrate the value of methodological pluralism in studying aspects of deeper psychological experience. Two of these examples show that different methods lead to different conclusions, supporting a need for both methods. The other shows that different methods can lead to similar conclusions. Methodological pluralism does not always lead to conflicting conclusions but can lead to a kind of triangulation which may clarify and reinforce our understanding.
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Research on Life Satisfaction
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Thomas and Chambers (1989) studied life satisfaction in elderly men using two samples, men over seventy years old in England and in India. A quantitative component of the research used three standard measures of life satisfaction which had been used in previous research. There were no differences between the two groups on these measures; the elderly men in England and India who were surveyed were equally satisfied with their lives. However, a qualitative component of the research showed marked differences. In-depth, open-ended, non-directive interviews were conducted with men from both groups. Analysis of the interviews consisted of identifying meaning units, i.e., any words, phrases, or expressions which could be said to carry information or meaning. Researchers combined meaning units into themes and the over-arching themes for each group were identified. Data analysis entailed examination of the interview texts and themes along with on-going dialogue between researchers. These dialogues produced a high level of agreement but, as with any dialogue, there were differences which required negotiation to reach consensus. In the qualitative data analysis, the differences between the two groups were strong, with the English men being more concerned about their physical well-being and loss of independence and the Indian men being more concerned with their spiritual and religious well-being and with their families. In the realm of the human spirit, including morale, meaning, and purpose, the qualitative research revealed a different understanding than the quantitative research. Thomas and Chambers conclude, "Perhaps it is time to acknowledge that quantitative measures alone are not able to encompass the full breadth of these intensely subjective domains" (p. 66).
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Research on Meditation
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Relying primarily on experimental techniques in a reductionist framework, the natural science perspective has approached meditation in terms of quantifiable variables such as physiological arousal levels. A review of this research by Holmes (1984) showed meditation to be as effective as, but not better than, progressive relaxation or napping. However, using a human science approach, transpersonal psychologists have explored not only quantitative but also qualitative, phenomenological data as well (e.g., Goleman, 1987; Shapiro & Walsh, 1984). The phenomenology of meditation explores meditators' goals and the meaning of meditative experiences. Based on this research, the effects of meditation include not only relaxation and self-regulation but also altered states of consciousness, self-transcendence, personal growth, and spiritual transformation. From a human science perspective, the effects of meditation are clearly distinguishable from those of napping and other self-regulation or behavior modification practices (Shapiro, 1985, 1992). Here, the human science approach provides a description of meditation using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Compared to a natural science approach, this description is deeper in that it comes closer to the experiences of the many people who, for thousands of years, have used meditation as part of a spiritual practice. It is richer in that it connects meditation to other spiritual and personal growth practices such as prayer and ritual as well as to relaxation. It is also more useful because it connects meditation to the concepts and theories of modern psychology. For instance, the human science approach reveals the similarities and differences between meditation and relaxation training and shows the potential dangers of meditation to those for whom such altered states of consciousness might be problematic, such as psychotics or those in psychological crisis.
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